Pet Ownership as a Protective Factor Supporting the Emotional Well-Being of 
Cancer Patients and Their Family Members. 

Victoria H. Raveis, Ph.D., Principal 
Investigator, Frances Mesagno, Ph.D., Co-Principal Investigator, Dan Karus, M.S. 
Programmer-Analyst, Eileen Gorey, M.P.H., Research Associate. Final Report Year 
2, August 15, 1993, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, Department of Social 
Work, Research Unit, 1275 York Avenue, New York, NY 10021. 

Abstract

The goal of this two-year research project is to examine the efficacy of the 
presence of pets as a protective factor supporting the psychosocial well being 
of cancer patients and their family members, through both secondary analyses of 
previously collected data and analyses of data on human-animal interaction to be 
newly collected over the two-year study period. Specifically, the research aims 
are:
To examine the association of the presence of pets-dogs, cats and other 
household animals-with psychosocial well-being (as measured, e.g., by 
depression, anxiety, self-esteem and, for children, peer-relationships, social 
competence and school performance) of cancer patients and their family 
members. 
To examine the efficacy of the presence of pets in mediating the impact of 
stressful life situations (i.e., serious illness and/or death) on the 
psychological well-being of cancer patients and their family members. 
To assess the importance of various aspects (i.e., extent and quality) of 
human-animal interactions in contributing to the psychosocial well-being of 
cancer patients and their family members. 
To compare the effect of human-animal interactions on the psychosocial 
well-being of patients and their family members at different stages of the 
illness course (i.e., diagnosis, active treatment, terminal period); in 
different types of households (i.e., intact families with young children, 
families with grown children, single parent households, and adults living 
alone); and in varying age-groups (i.e., latency-aged children, adolescents, 
young adults, middle-aged and older adults). 
We will accomplish these research aims through conducting secondary analyses of 
data from two studies we have recently completed which focused on seriously-ill 
or terminally-ill cancer patients and their families as well as collecting 
additional information on human-animal interactions as part of a third cancer 
study which is still ongoing. The first recently completed study was a 
multi-site, longitudinal investigation of adult cancer patients' needs for 
illness-related assistance and the impact on the family of providing this 
assistance. The second recently completed study examined the psychosocial 
adjustment of children who experienced recent parental death from cancer. The 
third study, which is still ongoing, is a longitudinal investigation of children 
experiencing the terminal illness and subsequent death of a parent to cancer. We 
have now added an extensive pet history questionnaire to the well parent and 
child interview schedules to enable us to examine the role of companion pets in 
human adjustment to loss in greater detail. 
Secondary analyses conducted during Year 1 focused on addressing Aims 1 and 2. 
These findings suggest that having a pet in the household may well be associated 
with better psychological adjustment for caregivers whose spouse is 
seriously-ill. While the current findings pertain only to spousal caregivers, 
they suggest that the presence of companion animals, specifically, cats and 
dogs, may have an beneficial impact in situations of stress and burden, such as 
experienced when caring for a spouse who is seriously-ill. 

Background

Theoretical Framework

The Research Unit of the Department of Social Work at Memorial Sloan-Kettering 
Cancer Center (MSKCC) has conducted a number of studies designed with the 
objective of learning more about problems and issues which confront seriously 
ill cancer patients and their family members or caregivers. In our work, we have 
become increasingly aware of the broad range of resources that people use to 
cope with stress in their lives and the importance of less commonly recognized 
sources of emotional support, such as companion animals, particularly dogs and 
cats.
In clinical work with patients and their families we have observed that the 
companionship of pets can facilitate a child's healthy adaptation to a parent's 
serious illness and death, by providing unconditional love and continuity at a 
time when children's needs for love, affection and support are enormous. 
Furthermore, children need to talk about their painful and conflicted feelings 
regarding parental loss, and often they are able to confide these feelings more 
readily to their pets than to humans. Taking care of a pet can also enhance 
children's adjustment by providing environmental consistency and maintaining the 
structure of their daily routines, so important in the face of the vast 
disruption that occurs during the parent's terminal illness and in the 
post-death period (Siegel, Mesagno & Christ, 1990). Children's feelings of 
competence and control are also enhanced by their fulfilling a necessary family 
role as the pet's caretaker. Their self-esteem can be enhanced by experiencing a 
feeling of being needed by the pet. In our interviews, children frequently list 
their pets as family members and both children and their surviving parents 
report that their companionship has been enormously comforting. 
In our work with other patient populations, we have also observed that household 
pets are frequently spontaneously mentioned by AIDS patients as important in 
helping them cope when they feel distressed. These patients have remarked on the 
unconditional love and affection they receive from their pets and the 
consistency with which this affection is expressed. Some have acquired a pet 
since becoming ill because they find that they have more time to themselves. For 
them, the pet is a source of companionship and a means of overcoming the 
loneliness they are experiencing. These patients have also remarked that having 
a pet provides them with a reason to remain active and life-focused (e.g., to 
take care of the pet, interact with the pet). 

Literature Review

The contribution of companion animals to human psychological well-being and 
interpersonal development has received increasing attention in recent years. 
Levinson's (1969, 1972, 1978) groundbreaking work on the role of pets in human 
development heightened behavioral scientists' awareness of the varied beneficial 
consequences of animal-human interaction. While much of the earlier work in this 
area relied on anecdotal reports and clinical experiences, recent work 
represents efforts to more systematically explore the role of companion animals. 

The work of Katcher, Beck and colleagues (e.g., Beck & Katcher, 1983; Friedmann, 
et al., 1983; Katcher & Beck, 1986; Katcher et al., 1983; Katcher, Beck & 
Levine, 1988) has provided evidence that contact and interaction with animal 
companions increases relaxation and reduces arousal in both children and adults, 
especially in stressful situations (Katcher, Segal & Beck, 1984). Others (Baun 
et al., 1984; Grossberg & Alt, 1984) have noted similar findings. In a one-year 
follow-up study of coronary heart disease patients, patients with a household 
pet had a better survival rate than those without pets (Friedmann et al., 1980). 

Current investigations have primarily focused on the beneficial health aspects 
of animal companions to the elderly and, to a lesser extent, on the role of pets 
in childhood development. Kidd and Feldmann (1981) reported that pet owners 
scored higher than non-owners on measures of responsibility, dependability, 
nurturance, helpfulness, benevolence and lack of egotism or self-centeredness. 
Mugford and M'Comisky (1975) reported longer survival among elderly retirees who 
were given pet birds. In a study of widowers, Akiyama et al. (1987) observed 
that pet owners had significantly fewer psychosomatic symptoms than those who 
did not have a pet. Others have not been able to demonstrate statistically 
significant effects of pet ownership on health outcomes (e.g., Ory & Goldberg, 
1983; Lago, Knight & Connell, 1983; Lawton, Moss & Moles, 1984; and Robb & 
Stegman, 1983); however, their findings do suggest that the influence of animal 
companionship is complex and may be influenced by other elements, such as 
personality characteristics or situational factors. 
In a longitudinal investigation of health outcomes among the elderly, Lago et 
al. (1989) posited that the effect of pets on health was indirect, that is, pets 
improved morale, which more directly influenced the respondents' self-reported 
health and functioning levels. Garrity et al. (1989) observed that pet ownership 
in an elderly sample of community respondents was not related to depression when 
one or more confidants were available, but among a subgroup of recently bereaved 
elderly with minimal confidant support, pet ownership was associated with less 
depression. Additionally, for the sample as a whole, strong attachment to a pet 
was associated with less depression. Siegel (1990) has observed that the 
presence of pets served as a moderator of the effect of stressful life events on 
the health of the elderly. 
In other empirical work, children have been found to develop strong affective 
ties with their pets, especially dogs and cats. In a survey of 300 children 
between the ages of 3 and 13, which explored differences in children's attitudes 
by age, sex, and type of pet, Kidd and Kidd (1985) found that children defined 
their pets as playmates and companions. Children without siblings may be 
particularly motivated to keep pets for play and care (Siegmund & Biermann, 
1988). Children regularly engage in mutual activities with pets, and, although 
predominantly recreational, even preadolescent children assume significant 
caretaking tasks (Davis, 1987a). There is some evidence that children's pet 
ownership is associated with their increased self-esteem and sociability (Covert 
et al., 1985; Siegmund & Biermann, 1988). Levinson (1972) has further argued 
that through interaction with pets, children can achieve a balance between 
independence and dependence with his/her family. Covert et al. (1985), however, 
focusing on the role of adolescent pet ownership on the family system, did not 
find pet owners and nonowners to differ significantly on the quality of the 
parent-child relationship. Finally, childhood experience with pets has been 
found to influence individuals' likelihood to own pets as adults (Serpell, 
1981). Poresky et al. (1988) similarly found adults' retrospective reports of 
pet bonding during childhood to predict contemporary attitudes toward pets and 
that this relationship was affected by the age at which earliest bonding had 
occurred.
In summary, although the existing research provides some support for concluding 
that companion animals make an important contribution to human well-being 
throughout the life cycle, the results also indicate that this relationship is 
complex and requires further investigation. Clearly, additional research needs 
to be done in which various aspects of pet ownership are examined, such as type 
of pet, and the nature and strength of the pet-human relationship. Moreover, an 
area which has not been as systematically examined is the role of companion 
animals in mediating the impact of stressful situations, such as being seriously 
ill, having a seriously ill family member, or experiencing the death of a family 
member. 

Study

Methodology

We will conduct secondary analyses of data from two studies we have recently 
completed, which focused on seriously-ill or terminally-ill cancer patients and 
their families. In addition, during the two-year project period we will collect 
additional information on human-animal interactions as part of a third cancer 
study, which is still ongoing to examine this issue in greater detail. All three 
research studies are described below. 
Research Studies for the Secondary Data Analyses
Study 1: Cancer patients and their familial caregivers
The first recently completed study was a longitudinal investigation of adult 
cancer outpatients and their familial caregivers, conducted in collaboration 
with Brown University and Hershey Medical Center and supported by a grant from 
the National Cancer Institute. Dr. Raveis was the Project Director at the 
Memorial Hospital site. Data were gathered from patients from three geographic 
locations: New York, Rhode Island and Pennsylvania. The principal objectives of 
this study were to:
identify the home care needs of patients initiating outpatient chemotherapy 
and radiation treatment, 
determine how these needs change over time, and 
determine the kinds of burdens experienced by cancer patients' informal 
caregivers. 
Enrolled patients were asked to identify the principal person who provided or 
would provide informal (unpaid) assistance to them when necessary. The person 
they nominated was then approached to become part of the caregiver sample. 
Patients and their caregivers were interviewed twice. The initial patient 
interview was conducted shortly after the patient began a new or initial 
treatment regimen of chemotherapy or radiation. Their informal caregiver was 
also interviewed at the same time. Half of the patient sample and their 
caregivers were randomly selected to be re-interviewed 3 months after the 
initial interview; the remainder were re-interviewed after 6 months. Structured 
questionnaires were used to collect information from the patients and their 
caregivers. The interviews were generally administered over the telephone. The 
patient interview schedule contained basic socio-demographic data, information 
on needs for assistance, source and extent of care received, symptom status, 
healthcare utilization and psychological distress. The caregiver interview 
schedule included demographic items, measures of burden in various domains 
(social, financial, physical, time, and employment), substance abuse, 
availability of social resources, psychological well-being, physical health, and 
the presence and type of pet in the household. A total of 629 adult cancer 
outpatients and 483 informal caregivers participated in the interviews. 
Early in Year 1 of the study, as part of preparing the data files for the 
secondary data analyses, we went back to the original questionnaires and coded 
additional information concerning pet ownership that was obtained during the 
interview, but not coded into the data files. Specifically, during the interview 
with the patient's informal familial caregiver, the caregiver was asked if there 
was a pet in the household. If they reported having a pet, the interviewer then 
asked what type of pet they had. If more than one type of pet was in the 
household, i.e., "cat and dog" or "dog, fish and horse", the information was 
written down in the interview schedule but only the fact that it was a multiple 
pet household was coded into the data file. The exact composition of the pets in 
the household was not coded into the computer data files. We felt that it was 
important to the analyses we planned to carry out to determine not only if pet 
ownership, per se, was important for psychological well-being, but whether 
specific types of pets were more strongly associated with reduced distress than 
other pets, we decided to go back to the original questionnaires and code this 
missing information. Since the data for this study was obtained from a 
multi-site project, we contacted the investigators at the other research sites 
and arranged for them to provide us with the detailed data concerning the exact 
composition of the pets in a household as well. We then merged this extra 
information with the data in our existing data files 
Study 2: The psychosocial adjustment of bereaved children
The second recently completed study examined the psychosocial adjustment of 
children who experienced recent parental death from cancer. Dr. Mesagno was the 
Co-Principal Investigator and Project Director of this study, supported by a 
grant from the American Cancer Society. It was undertaken to describe the 
nature, intensity, and determinants of psychological symptomatology in normal 
bereaved children, aged 6-16 years, during the 16 months following a parent's 
death and to identify determinants of healthy adaptation to the loss. The 
study's quasi-longitudinal design, assessing children at various points 
post-parental death, allows us to document the natural history of childhood 
bereavement including both the acute and chronic phases of mourning. Data were 
collected from the children themselves and their surviving parents and teachers, 
using self-administered instruments and in-depth, face-to-face interviews by 
experienced clinicians. We assessed children's psychosocial adaptation in a 
number of domains including their psychiatric symptomatology, competencies, peer 
relationships and school performance. The study also examined factors, which 
have been associated with children's psychosocial adjustment, including 
background characteristics (e.g., child's age, sex, and birth order, parent's 
sex, socioeconomic status); illness-related factors (e.g., length of parent's 
illness, number and length of hospitalizations); and characteristics of the 
family environment (e.g., quality of the parent-child relationship, the 
surviving parent's depressive symptomatology). The data include the parent's 
reports of the acquisition or death of a pet since the patient's death and 
children's reports of what kinds and for how long they have had their current 
pets. Post-death data are available on 65 families, consisting of an intensive 
interview with the surviving parent and a randomly-selected index child per 
family. 
Research Study in Which Additional Data Will Be Collected
Study 3: Facilitating bereaved children's adaptation to the terminal illness and 
death of a parent
The ongoing study, in which we propose to examine the role of companion pets in 
human adjustment to loss, is a true longitudinal study of children's adjustment 
to parental serious illness and death to cancer, and a comprehensive evaluation 
of the relative efficacy of two preventive interventions designed to facilitate 
children's healthy adaptation to their loss. Dr. Mesagno is the Co-Principal 
Investigator and Project Director for this 5-year study supported by a grant 
from the National Institute of Mental Health. Efficacy of the intervention is 
assessed in terms of children's ability to maintain competence as demonstrated 
by their levels of school performance, social competence, self-esteem, 
psychiatric symptomatology, and behavior problems. Study participation is 
offered to intact, English-speaking families in which there is at least one 
child between 7 and 16 years of age and a parent with advanced cancer and an 
expected survival time of 4-6 months. This study employs a true experimental 
design with a target sample of 110 families assigned to Treatment Group 1 who 
are offered participation in an intensive clinical intervention program, and 110 
families assigned to Treatment Group 2 who receive enhanced social work 
services. Baseline (T1) data are collected during the parent's terminal illness, 
at the time of accrual into the study, prior to the initiation of any 
intervention. Group differences in children's functioning are also assessed at 7 
and 14 months (T2 and T3) following the death of the parent. 
Face-to-face research interviews are conducted with the well parents and all 
eligible children at T1, T2, and T3. The data include self-report, 
parental-report, and teacher-report measures. Comprehensive assessment of 
children's psychosocial adaptation is made with standardized measures of their 
depression, anxiety, behavior problems, competencies, peer relationships, and 
school performance. In addition, several parent and child report measures have 
been developed to evaluate family environment and quality of the parent-child 
relationship, particularly the extent of open parent-child communication, the 
child's perception of the adequacy of his/her support, and the degree of 
consistency in his/her environment. We also assess several risk factors expected 
to be associated with a child's adjustment to parental death (e.g., his/her 
awareness of the severity of illness, experience of other stressful life events, 
and number and length of separations from the family). Finally, we assess the 
psychological adjustment of the well/surviving spouses who must now raise the 
children as single parents. 
During Year 1 we developed an expanded set of pet history questions to be 
administered to the families participating in the study. In designing the pet 
history questionnaire we utilized, whenever possible, pre-existing scales and 
inventories. Specifically, the pet history questionnaire collects information on 
the history of pet ownership, change in pet ownership over time, strength of the 
human-animal bond, mutual pet-human activities, and attitudes toward pets. 
In developing this questionnaire we incorporated the pet history section from 
the Pet Attitude Inventory [PAI] (Wilson, Netting & New, 1987) and the pet 
attachment scale and pet interaction checklist utilized by Albert and Bulcroft 
(1987). We also included several additional items drawn from measures developed 
by Poresky et al. (1987), Davis (1987) and Templer et al. (1981), revising the 
wording in these additional items to make them compatible with the format and 
metric of the other questionnaire items. We also included extra items that 
tapped areas of pet relationships which we know from our work and research in 
bereavement and chronic illness that might be especially important to children 
experiencing stressful life changes. 
In constructing the questionnaire it was necessary to make slight modifications 
in the pet measures. In some instances we revised the response categories to 
make them compatible with the format and metric of the Childhood Bereavement 
Interview Schedule. We also altered the question stems of some items so that 
they could be answered about any type of pet, not just dogs or cats. Because the 
pet questions will be asked as part of a face-to-face interview, we opted for 
obtaining a more comprehensive or precise response to some of the questions 
rather than giving the response a forced choice alternative. For example, for 
duration questions, the exact length of time would be recorded rather than 
coding the answer into a category which spanned a range of time (e.g., 1-5 
years, 6-10 years). Also, questions which asked the respondent to give one or 
more reasons for an attitude or behavior were left open-ended to obtain a more 
comprehensive answer before being coded into broad categories. 
Both an adult version and a child version of the pet questionnaire were 
constructed. Skip instructions for follow-up interviews were developed so that 
the pet history questions would be administered to each parent and child only 
once. Other skip instructions ensure that the appropriate items to be asked of 
current pet owners (parent/child), former pet owners (parent/child), and non- 
pet owners (parent/child).
Because of the age range of the population being surveyed (i.e., children aged 
7-16 as well as adults), we pre-tested the various versions of the pet 
questionnaire on different age-groups of children and adults, checking for 
question flow and sequencing, clarity of wording, comprehension and 
age-appropriateness before using it with the families in the study. Once we 
finalized the pet questionnaire items we then incorporated it into the Childhood 
Bereavement Interview Schedule (Adult and Child versions) and began 
administering the questionnaire in Year 1 as a family came due for an initial or 
follow-up interview. Data collection will continue throughout Year 2 of the 
project. All well/surviving parents and children between 7-16 years old who are 
accrued into the study, regardless of the type of intervention they receive, are 
asked to participate in the research interviews. We are estimating that by the 
completion of the data collection in Year 2 approximately 200 families will have 
completed individual interviews containing the detailed pet questions (i.e., 
individual interviews with the well parent and each age-eligible child). 
Description of Year 1 Secondary Data Analyses
The secondary analyses that were conducted during Year 1 focused on research 
aims 1 and 2. Specifically, we examined the association of the presence of a 
household pet with the psychological well-being of adults who were providing 
informal caregiving to a family member seriously-ill with cancer. We also 
examined the efficacy of the presence of a household pet in mediating the 
stressful consequences of the provision of informal caregiving to cancer 
patients.
For many years treatment for patients with cancer involved long and frequent 
hospitalizations. More recently, however, care has increasingly been 
administered on an outpatient basis (Mor, Guadagnoli and Wool, 1987). This has 
resulted in family members performing a growing variety of complex 
time-consuming and stressful tasks to meet the outpatients needs for assistance 
(Siegel, Raveis, Mor and Hoots, 1991). While the practical and emotional 
benefits that accrue to the recipients of familial support and care are well 
recognized (Shanas, 1979), there is substantial evidence that the burdens of 
providing informal practical and emotional support are far-reaching and diverse, 
negatively impacting on numerous aspects of caregiver's lives (see Siegel, 
Raveis, Mor and Hoots, 1991, for review).
The data for these analyses was drawn from the recently completed collaborative 
study conducted by MSKCC, Brown University and Pennsylvania State University 
College of Medicine. The research, a longitudinal investigation of the 
caregiving needs of cancer patients and their family members (see Study 1). 
In the analyses presented below, we examine the contribution of the presence of 
a pet (specifically a cat or a dog) in the household to caregiver psychological 
well-being in association with caregiver burden and other aspects of the 
caregiving situation. The sample is restricted to the 243 spousal dyads for 
which all the data were available. Among married patients, the spouse is almost 
always the primary provider of emotional support and personal care (Shanas, 
1979; Stone et al., 1987). Spousal caregivers also appear to be particularly at 
risk for caregiver burden; typically providing the most extensive and 
comprehensive care, they maintain the role longer, tolerate greater levels of 
disability than other caregiver groups, experience more severe lifestyle 
adjustments and exhibit lower levels of well-being than other caregiver groups 
(Cantor, 1983; Soldo and Myllyluoma, 1983; George and Gwyther, 1986). 
A comparison of households containing a dog or cat with those that do not
Before a multivariate analysis of the effect of the presence of a pet in the 
household on caregiver depression, it was important to look for ways in which 
pet owners and non-pet owners differed. Forty percent of the households included 
in the analysis contained at least one pet. Thirty-seven percent of all 
households contained either a dog or a cat (with or without another pet). Of the 
eight households which had a pet, but did not contain either a dog or a cat, 
three contained only a bird(s); three contained only fish and/or turtles; and 
two contained a pet(s) of some other unspecified species. For all subsequent 
analyses, the measure of pet ownership used was whether or not a cat and/or a 
dog was present in the household. Given the wide variety of species included in 
respondent households it is important to provide at least some control for the 
type of pet(s) included in the household. This restricted definition of pet 
ownership provides an important control in that any effect associated with the 
measure can be said to apply only households known to contain at least one or 
more mammals (all households containing rabbits or horses also contain a cat or 
dog). The analysis of whether different pets are associated with different 
effects on adjustment will be conducted during Year 2. Cats and dogs are the 
only two species of pets residing in a sufficient number of respondent 
households to analyze separately and are therefore the only two species for 
which these analyses will be run. 
Although caregivers who were also pet owners of cats or dogs were more likely to 
be males-46% of the caregivers who were also pet owners were male compared to 
66% of the non-owners, this difference was not statistically significant. Pet 
owners were significantly more likely to be white-100% of the pet owners were 
white compared to 93% of non-pet owners (p. =.021). Pet owners, as a group, were 
significantly younger than non-owners (mean age 56.0 vs. 61.0, p<.001). They 
were also more likely to be employed (49% vs. 39%), although this difference was 
not statistically significant. Both pet owners and non-owners were fairly 
well-educated (40% and 38%, respectively, had attended college, with 20% and 27% 
having graduated college). The distribution of household incomes was similar for 
both groups even though the median household income was higher for those 
households containing a cat or dog than those that did not ($32,239 and $27,500, 
respectively). There was no significant difference between pet owners and 
non-pet owners in terms of any measure of the patient's health status, type of 
cancer, or stage of illness at the time of the interview. 

Measurement of variables used in the regression analyses
A variety of measures, based on a review of the literature on informal 
caregiving, have been shown to be associated with caregiver psychological 
distress (see Siegel, Raveis, Mor and Hoots, 1991 for a review) and were 
selected for inclusion in the regression analysis in addition to the presence of 
a cat or dog in the household. These groups of variables include demands and 
characteristics of the caregiving situation, caregiving burdens, and various 
sociodemographic characteristics. 
Demands and characteristics of the caregiving situation
The patient's need for illness-related assistance with each of the following 
activities was identified: personal care (bathing, dressing, or getting around); 
instrumental activities (cooking and shopping, light and heavy housekeeping); 
transportation (to doctor or for other purposes), home health care, child care, 
and administrative tasks. The total number of domains of activities for which 
they required assistance because of their illness was then summed to form a 
count of the total number of patient needs. Patients were also asked the total 
number of days during the prior two weeks that they spent entirely or most in 
bed or had to curtail their activities because of their illness or 
illness-related treatment. The responses were summed (with a cap of 14 days) and 
trichotomized as 0 days, 1 to 13 days, and 14 days, representing a measure of 
reduced patient activity days. Familial caregivers were asked to assess the 
extent to which the patient's illness made it difficult to establish a daily 
routine or plan activities. Caregivers also reported how confident they felt 
that they could personally provide the patient with additional care should the 
need arise.
Caregiver burden
Based on the literature, caregiver burden was conceptualized as falling into 
five principal domains: employment, financial, physical, social and time. Using 
items contained in the caregiver interview, separate measures were constructed 
of objective (i.e., empirically verifiable or observable consequences of 
caregiving) and subjective (i.e., perceived or felt consequences of caregiving) 
burden for each domain. A separate summary measure of global objective and 
global subjective burden was constructed for each domain (see Siegel, Raveis, 
Mor and Hoots, 1991), consistent with other caregiver investigations (Raveis, 
Seigel and Sudit, 1990). 
Presence of a cat or dog in the household
The measure of pet ownership used in the regression analyses was whether or not 
a cat and/or a dog was present in the household as discussed above. 

Description of the sample and distribution of variables used in the regression 
analyses
In 62% of these dyads the husband was the patient, while in the remainder the 
wife was the patient. The majority of patients and their spouses were 45 and 
older, with a sizable proportion 65 and older, 37% and 35%, respectively. Nearly 
all respondents (patients and caregivers) were white (96% and 95% respectively). 
About one quarter of the patients and 43% of the spousal caregivers were 
currently employed. Median household income was $29,149. As stated earlier, in 
37% of the households a cat or dog was present. All patients reported needing 
assistance with tasks in at least one domain of activity, with most needing help 
with three or more domains. While none of the patients reported needing 
assistance with all six domains of activities this is due to the fact (given the 
age distribution) that only 7% of the households contained a child under 12 
years of age, rather than indicating a lack of need. Thirty-nine percent of the 
patients had had to curtail their activities everyday during the past two weeks 
while 29% reported not having to curtail their activities at all. Over 
three-fifths (62%) of the caregivers reported their caregiving activities had 
disrupted their daily routines at least "a little." Most were "quite" or "very" 
confident they would be able to provide more care if the patient needed it in 
the future, but one-fourth were only "somewhat" or "not at all" confident they 
would be able to do so. A sizable proportion (30%) of the spousal caregiver 
sample scored at or above the cutoff for clinical caseness for depression on the 
CES-D scale. The mean CES-D for the entire spousal caregiver sample was 11.4 
(S.D.-9.8). 
The predictors of depression included in these analyses fall into four major 
domains: sociodemographic characteristics, measures of the ill spouse's level of 
need and current health status, measures of caregiver burden (global objective 
and subjective, and the spousal caregiver's assessment of ability to provide 
additional assistance if needed), and whether there is a cat and/or dog in the 
household. 
Since the analysis is restricted to spousal dyads, caregiver and patient 
demographics are highly correlated. As a result only the spousal caregiver 
demographic characteristics [i.e., sex, age, employment status, and health 
status-spousal caregiver has a health condition(s) which make it difficult to 
provide care] are being included in multivariate analyses. Spousal caregiver's 
depression score is significantly correlated (p<.05) with all but two of the 
independent measures-spousal caregiver's employment status and the presence of a 
cat or dog in the household. The spousal caregiver's depression score is most 
strongly correlated with all measures of caregiver burden (all p<.001), 
especially the global measure of subjective burden). Spousal caregiver 
depression is also significantly correlated with patient's illness-related need 
for assistance and reduced activity days. 
As one would expect, based on the prior research on informal caregiving and 
caregiver burden, higher levels of spousal caregiver burden and patient need for 
assistance are associated with higher levels of caregiver depression. In 
addition, consistent with the epidemiological research on gender an age 
differences in depression, the caregiving husbands reported lower levels of 
depression and younger spousal caregivers had higher levels of depression. Those 
spousal caregivers who reported having a limiting health condition also tended 
to have higher depression scores. Although the zero-order correlation between 
spousal caregiver depression and the presence of a cat or dog in the household 
was not significant, there was a trend towards lower levels of depression among 
those caregivers with a cat or dog in their household (r=-.08, p=.l0). 
Correlations between the independent variables are also as expected with 
measures in each domain (for the most part) significantly correlated to each 
other. The measures of patient need are significantly and positively correlated 
with higher levels of burden. There are only scattered correlations between the 
measures of caregiver characteristics and the burden measures. The presence of a 
cat and/or dog in the household is significantly correlated with caregiver sex 
(pets are more likely in households where the husband is the caregiver) and 
caregiver age (pets are more likely in younger households.
To test the relative strength of the univariate relationships between predictors 
and to determine which relationships remained significant once control for the 
other measures was made, a hierarchiecal linear regression model was tested. 
Even though spousal caregivers' employment status was not significantly 
correlated with spousal caregivers' depression score, it was retained because it 
was strongly correlated to other independent measures and because it was 
conceptually and theoretically important to retain. After the model was 
estimated, including all variables but the presence of a cat or dog in the 
household, it was reestimated with this variable included to see if its 
inclusion:
added to the explanatory power of the model, and 
impacted on spousal caregivers' depression level once the patient's level of 
need, caregiver characteristics, and the caregiver's level of burden and 
ability to do more, were controlled for. 

Results and discussion of the regression analyses
Model 1 showed that global subjective burden which also had the strongest 
zero-order correlation with caregiver depression is also its strongest 
predictor. The fact that no other measure of burden or patient need retains a 
significant relationship with caregiver depression once global subjective burden 
is controlled for suggests the effect of these measures on caregiver depression 
may be indirect - i.e. the patient's level of need, the caregiver's ability to 
provide help, and the amount of burden the caregiver is already doing impact the 
patient's level of depression through global subjective burden rather than 
directly. The main predictor of caregiver depression is not so much the status 
of the patient or the patient's ability to perform various activities, but 
caregivers' perception of the situation. These findings suggest the use of 
LISREL or path analysis to determine which aspects of subjective burden are most 
closely associated with depression, and the nature of indirect effects patient 
need and other measures of burden have on caregiver depression. Ironically, the 
only other significant predictor of caregiver depression in Model 1, after all 
other independent measures have been controlled for is caregiver employment 
status, which did not have a significant zero-order correlation with caregiver 
depression. 
Model 2 reestimated the equation predicting spousal caregiver depression with 
the presence of a cat or dog in the household included. As was the case with 
caregiver employment status, even though the presence of a cat or dog in the 
household had a weak zero-order relationship with caregiver depression its 
relationship is significant once the other independent measures have been 
controlled for (beta = - .111; p=. 041). The inclusion of the presence of a cat 
or dog in the household to Model 1 did little to change the betas between any of 
the other independent measures, but did significantly increase R2 (F 
change=4.206;p=. 041). As was the case in Model 1, global subjective burden 
(beta = - .454; p=. 000) and caregiver employment status (beta =- .148; p =. 
O21) were the only two of the original ten independent variables to have a 
significant direct effect on caregiver depression. These findings suggest that 
all other things being equal, the predicted level of depression for a cat and/or 
dog owner is 2.239 points lower than that of a similar person who does not own a 
pet. 
These findings suggest that having a pet in the household may well be associated 
with better psychological adjustment for caregivers whose spouse is seriously 
ill. While the current findings pertain only to spousal caregivers, they suggest 
that the presence of companion animals, specifically, cats and dogs, may have a 
beneficial impact in situations of stress and burden, such as experienced when 
caring for a spouse who is seriously ill. 

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