Summary
This paper considers the role of companion animals in children’s development,
with emphasis on how companion animals may affect quality of life for children.
Because companion animals must be available to children in order to exert
influence on their development, evidence for availability of companion animals
is first reviewed. Then, a framework, derived from existing theories on human
development, is applied to examine quality of life in children’s development.
Hypotheses about how companion animals might affect children’s quality of life
are advanced. Existing literature is examined as it bears on each of these
hypotheses, and directions for future research are suggested. The major goals of
this paper are: (a) to link research and theory related to human-companion
animal relationships; (b) to apply broad, a mainstream ideas about children’s
development to consideration of the role of companion animals; and (c) to
suggest a programmatic, theory-based blueprint for future research.
Quality of life (OL), measured in adults by indicators of general well-being,
subjective symptoms and feelings, and functional social status (Wilson, 1994),
generally has not been applied to children’s development. However, OL provides a
useful umbrella construct that can be applied across the lifespan, including
childhood. For children, QL may be defined as the perceived ability of the child
to meet developmental challenges resulting in a sense of well-being. This
definition, while consistent with the broader OL construct emphasizing
subjective evaluation of well being, adds an emphasis on (a) quality of life as
related to the developmental needs of children; and (b) developmental tasks
associated with different developmental periods.
Erickson’s life cycle theory and Bowlby’s attachment theory are useful for
describing developmental challenges, while ecological systems theory
(Bronfenbrenner, 1986) suggests multiple levels of environmental influence and
multidirectional pathways of influence, with children playing an active role in
their own development.
The First Developmental Challenge: Secure Attachment or Basic Trust
The foundational developmental challenge of basic trust, the reassurance that
ones needs will be met, leads the child to believe in the world as benign and
hence, interesting. There is considerable evidence that basic trust stems from
secure attachments to others, which particularly under stress, reassure the
child of her safety and provide a secure base. This suggests the first
hypothesis: Companion animals may promote OL in children by forming secure
attachment relations with the child and thereby contributing to the child’s
sense of basic trust. The methodologies developed by attachment theorists have
not been utilized to examine the possible role of companion animals as a secure
base for very young children, but studies of children age five and older (Rost &
Hartmann, 1994; Melson & Schwarz, 1994; Bryant, 1985) suggest that many children
tum to companion animals for reassurance when feeling stressed.
However, it is presently unclear which children are most likely to derive
emotional support from companion animals and what qualities of animals or
interaction with them are most supportive. An additional important question is
the possible link between attachment to a companion animal and attachment to
humans. Finally, is the quality of attachment to a companion animal predictive
of later competency? In general, an important direction for HCAB research that
can link it more closely to basic developmental questions is the examination of
the attachment relationship to companion animals in the context of human
attachments.
The Developmental Challenges of Autonomy and Initiative
Reassured about their own basic safety through secure attachments, children then
feel able to face the challenge of mastery over the physical and social
environment through the development of self-control and independence. This is
achieved in part through exploration of the expanding world through play, new
relationships and testing the capacities of maturing bodies and brains. This
suggests the second hypothesis: Companion animals may promote quality of life in
children by facilitative play, exploration and independence. Considerable
evidence documents children’s perceptions of companion animals as play partners
(Melson, Peet & Sparks, 1991; Rost & Hartmann, 1994).
Needed research directions in this area include: (a) more detailed descriptions
of the form, content and quality of children’s play with companion animals,
particularly its similarities and differences to play with human companions; (b)
examination of animal play partners in the contaxt of human interaction, for
example, the role of companion animals as social lubricants to adult-child or
child-child play; and (c) attention to sources of individual differences in
involvement with a companion animal as play partner.
The Developmental Challenge of Industry
The elementary school or pre-adolescent years are described by Erikson as
focused on the developmental challenge of learning skills, of being industrious
in the sense of deriving pleasure from completing tasks. The child’s success in
this domain is mirrored in feelings of self-competence, in being good at
learning tasks. Influences on meeting the challenge of industry stem, not only
from success at previous developmental challenges, but also from a variety of
other environmental influences. Research has been informative about the role of
authoritative parenting (a combination of warmth, firmness and acceptance), peer
acceptance, and moderately challenging problems to solve. However, the role of
companion animals in fostering learning skills and self-confidence has been
little explored, and existing research does not point to consistent patterns.
Hence, the third hypothesis-Companion animals may promote quality of life in
children by aiding in learning and in acquisition of self-competence-remains to
be tested. Future research might address the following questions: (a) By what
process may animals facilitate learning? The use of classroom animals is
widespread, but outcome-based process research, examining how they are used and
employing outcomes to measure learning and feelings of competence, is lacking.
(b) Why is attachment to pets linked to perceived competence in some children
but not others? What processes underlie such a link?
Erickson describes the adolescent challenge as achieving a sense of personal
identity. The process of identity search, involving reassessment of one’s
childhood in the light of one’s future, is well known, but the role of companion
animals in the context of this developmental challenge has not been studied.
Thus, the last hypothesis: Companion animals may promote quality of life by
facilitating the process of identity development. One possibility is as social
support, an echo of their attachment role as reassuring presences in times of
stress. Warm, accepting relationships with parents and friends have been shown
to predict positive identity exploration in adolescents, but the supportive
function of companion animals during this process is unclear. Because of
multiple influences on identity development, it is likely that companion animals
play a peripheral role. However, one should explore the characteristics of
adolescents for whom relationships with companion animals are particularly
significant.
In summary, a focus on stage-related developmental challenges of childhood
combined with examination of environmental influences provides a framework for a
research agenda on the role of companion animals for children’s quality of life.
References
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Melson, G.F. & Schwarz, R. (1994, October). Pets as social supports for
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